PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2)

Without a trace—make seamless gene edits with no residual footprint—includes dual GFP/puromycin selection and on-target enrichment with TK selection

Products

Catalog Number Description Size Price Quantity Add to Cart
PBHR100A-1 piggyBac-HR with GFP+Puro markers and TK selection (MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) for Gene Editing 10 µg $1302
- +

Overview

Overview

Seamless gene editing

Use the PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) to get seamless gene editing—leave no trace of vector sequences behind.

This special HR Donor works with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase instead of the Cre-LoxP system. Simply proceed with your CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing as usual—clone your homology arms into MCS1 and MCS2, use dual GFP and puromycin selection to find integrants, and enrich for on-target events using negative thymidine kinase (TK) selection (Figure 1).

PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3' PB TR-MCS2)

Why use an HR targeting vector?

Even though gene knock-outs can result from DSBs caused by Cas9 alone, SBI recommends the use of HR targeting vectors (also called HR donor vectors) for more efficient and precise mutation. HR donors can supply elements for positive or negative selection ensuring easier identification of successful mutation events. In addition, HR donors can include up to 6-8 kb of open reading frame for gene knock-ins or tagging, and, when small mutations are included in either 5’ or 3’ homology arms, can make specific, targeted gene edits.

Choose the right HR Targeting Vector for your project

Catalog #HR Donor VectorFeatures*Application
Gene Knock-outGene Knock-inGene EditsGene Tagging
HR100PA-1MCS1-LoxP-MCS2-MCS3-pA-LoxP-MCS4Basic HR Donor
HR110PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR120PA-1GFP-pA-LoxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSPuro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR130PA-1T2A-GFP-pA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSCo-express GFP with “tagged” gene via T2A
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR150PA-1GFP-T2A-Luc-pA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion and co-express luciferase via T2A
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR180PA-1IRES-GFP-pA-loxP-MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCS2Co-express GFP with “tagged” gene via IRES
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR210PA-1MCS1-LoxP-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-P2A-hsvTK-pA-LoxP-MCS2Removable GFP marker, puromycin selection, and TK selection
HR220PA-1GFP-pA-LoxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion
Removable RFP ,arker and hygromycin Selection
HR410PA-1MCS1-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2Removable GFP marker and puromycin selection
HR510PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-MCS2Removable RFP marker and hygromycin selection
HR700PA-1MCS1-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable GFP marker and puromycin selection
HR710PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable RFP marker and hygromycin selection
HR720PA-1MCS1-EF1α-Blasticidin-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable blasticidin selection
GE602A-1pAAVS1D-PGK-MCS-EF1α-copGFPpuroFirst generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
GE603A-1pAAVS1D-CMV-RFP-EF1α-copGFPpuroFirst generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor (positive control for GE602A-1)
GE620A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-MCSSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Promoterless to knock-in any gene or promoter-gene combination
GE622A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-EF1α-MCSSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Constitutive expression of your gene-of-interest
GE624A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-MCS-GFPSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Create reporter cell lines
CAS620A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-EF1α-hspCas9Knock-in Cas9 to the AAVS1 site
PBHR100A-1MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3' PB TR-MCS2Use with the PiggyBac Transposon System
Enables seamless gene editing with no residual footprint (i.e. completely remove vector sequences)
*All HR Target Vectors except PBHR100A-1 contain LoxP sites. Any sequences that are integrated between the two LoxP sites can be removed through transient expression of Cre Recombinase.
**The clever design of these HR Donors enables enrichment for on-target integration events. A PGK-hsvTK cassette is included outside of the homology arms. Because of this configuration, on-target integration that results from homologous recombination will not include the PGK-hsvTK cassette—only randomly-integrated off-target events will lead to integration of PGK-hsvTK and resulting TK activity. Therefore, TK selection will negatively select against off-target integrants. Click on any one of these vectors to see a diagram of how the negative selection works.
Customer Agreements Academic customers can purchase PiggyBac Transposon System components for internal research purposes for indefinite use, whereas commercial customers must sign a customer agreement for a six-month, limited-use license to evaluate the technology.

For end user license information, see the following:

* SBI is fully licensed to distribute PiggyBac vectors as a partnership with Hera BioLabs, Inc.

How It Works

How It Works

Getting seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase Seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase

Figure 1. Seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase. Step 1: Cas9 creates a double-stranded break (DSB) in the genomic DNA at a site that is complimentary to the gRNA. For gene editing, this DSB should be within an intron. Step 2: The DNA repair machinery is recruited to the DSB. In the presence of an HR Donor with homology to the region adjacent to the DSB (blue areas of the genomic and vector DNA) homologous recombination (HR) is favored over non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). If one of the homology arms of the HR donor contains the gene edit, it will be incorporated into the gene through the HR repair process. Step 3: Like the Cre-LoxP system, the PiggyBac Transposon system relies on an enzyme—the transposase—to mediate a site-specific recombination event between two sites, the 5’ PiggyBac Terminal Repeat (TR) and the 3’ PiggyBac TR. However, unlike the Cre-LoxP system, the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase completely removes the 5’ and 3’ PiggyBac TRs as well as any sequences in between the two TRs. The design of the PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) places two homology arms just outside of the PiggyBac Terminal Repeats (TRs). Thus, after Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase activity, all vector sequences are removed.

Genome engineering with CRISPR/Cas9

For general guidance on using CRISPR/Cas9 technology for genome engineering, including the design of HR Targeting Vectors, take a look at our CRISPR/Cas9 tutorials as well as the following application notes:

CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Knock-Out Application Note (PDF) »
CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing Application Note (PDF) »
CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Tagging Application Note (PDF) »

Supporting Data

FAQs

Resources

Citations

  • Brouwer, I, de Kort, MAC & Lenstra, TL. (2024) Measuring Transcription Dynamics of Individual Genes Inside Living Cells. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.). 2024; 2694:235-265. PM ID: 37824008
  • Matta, SK, et al. (2024) Genome-wide and targeted CRISPR screens identify RNF213 as a mediator of interferon gamma-dependent pathogen restriction in human cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2024; 121(1):e2315865120. PM ID: 38147552
  • Cho, MG, et al. (2024) MRE11 liberates cGAS from nucleosome sequestration during tumorigenesis. Nature. 2024; 625(7995):585-592. PM ID: 38200309
  • Du, M, et al. (2024) Direct observation of a condensate effect on super-enhancer controlled gene bursting. Cell. 2024; 187(2):331-344.e17. PM ID: 38194964
  • Schmitt, J, et al. (2024) Repurposing an endogenous degradation domain for antibody-mediated disposal of cell-surface proteins. EMBO reports. 2024;. PM ID: 38287192
  • Byrnes, AE, et al. (2024) A fluorescent splice-switching mouse model enables high-throughput, sensitive quantification of antisense oligonucleotide delivery and activity. Cell reports methods. 2024; 4(1):100673. PM ID: 38171361
  • Daiki, K, et al. (2024) Blood Endocan as a Biomarker for Breast Cancer Recurrence. Preprint. 2024;. Link: Preprint
  • Koeppel, J, et al. (2024) Randomizing the human genome by engineering recombination between repeat elements. bioRxiv. 2024;. Link: bioRxiv
  • Kortleve, D, et al. (2024) TCR-engineered T-cells directed against Ropporin-1 constitute a safe and effective treatment for triple-negative breast cancer in near-clinical models. bioRxiv. 2024;. Link: bioRxiv
  • Haakonsen, DL, et al. (2024) Stress response silencing by an E3 ligase mutated in neurodegeneration. Nature. 2024; 626(8000):874-880. PM ID: 38297121
  • Gupta, P, et al. (2024) Development of pathophysiologically relevant models of sickle cell disease and β-thalassemia for therapeutic studies. Nature communications. 2024; 15(1):1794. PM ID: 38413594
  • Company, C, et al. (2024) Logical design of synthetic cis-regulatory DNA for genetic tracing of cell identities and state changes. Nature communications. 2024; 15(1):897. PM ID: 38316783
  • Yang, L, et al. (2024) Uncovering receptor-ligand interactions using a high-avidity CRISPR activation screening platform. Science advances. 2024; 10(7):eadj2445. PM ID: 38354234
  • Kubara, K, et al. (2024) Lymph node macrophages drive innate immune responses to enhance the anti-tumor efficacy of mRNA vaccines. Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy. 2024;. PM ID: 38243602
  • Ng-Blichfeldt, J, et al. (2024) Identification of a core transcriptional program driving the human renal mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition. Developmental Cell. 2024;. Link: Developmental Cell
  • Yang, J, Cook, L & Chen, Z. (2024) Systematic evaluation of retroviral LTRs as cis-regulatory elements in mouse embryos. Cell reports. 2024; 43(3):113775. PM ID: 38381606
  • Taglini, F, et al. (2024) DNMT3B PWWP mutations cause hypermethylation of heterochromatin. EMBO reports. 2024;. PM ID: 38291337
  • Tanase-Nakao, K, et al. (2024) Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in Thirty Japanese Patients with Congenital Hypothyroidism Attributable to TG Defects. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2024;. PM ID: 38373250
  • Alsouri, S, et al. (2024) Actinin-4 controls survival signaling in B cells by limiting the lateral mobility of B-cell antigen receptors. European journal of immunology. 2024;:e2350774. PM ID: 38299456
  • Ke, X, et al. (2024) Establishment of a novel minigenome system for the identification of drugs targeting Nipah virus replication. The Journal of general virology. 2024; 105(1). PM ID: 38180473
PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) $1,302.00

Products

Catalog Number Description Size Price Quantity Add to Cart
PBHR100A-1 piggyBac-HR with GFP+Puro markers and TK selection (MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) for Gene Editing 10 µg $1302
- +

Overview

Overview

Seamless gene editing

Use the PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) to get seamless gene editing—leave no trace of vector sequences behind.

This special HR Donor works with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase instead of the Cre-LoxP system. Simply proceed with your CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing as usual—clone your homology arms into MCS1 and MCS2, use dual GFP and puromycin selection to find integrants, and enrich for on-target events using negative thymidine kinase (TK) selection (Figure 1).

PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3' PB TR-MCS2)

Why use an HR targeting vector?

Even though gene knock-outs can result from DSBs caused by Cas9 alone, SBI recommends the use of HR targeting vectors (also called HR donor vectors) for more efficient and precise mutation. HR donors can supply elements for positive or negative selection ensuring easier identification of successful mutation events. In addition, HR donors can include up to 6-8 kb of open reading frame for gene knock-ins or tagging, and, when small mutations are included in either 5’ or 3’ homology arms, can make specific, targeted gene edits.

Choose the right HR Targeting Vector for your project

Catalog #HR Donor VectorFeatures*Application
Gene Knock-outGene Knock-inGene EditsGene Tagging
HR100PA-1MCS1-LoxP-MCS2-MCS3-pA-LoxP-MCS4Basic HR Donor
HR110PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR120PA-1GFP-pA-LoxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSPuro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR130PA-1T2A-GFP-pA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSCo-express GFP with “tagged” gene via T2A
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR150PA-1GFP-T2A-Luc-pA-loxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion and co-express luciferase via T2A
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR180PA-1IRES-GFP-pA-loxP-MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Puro-pA-LoxP-MCS2Co-express GFP with “tagged” gene via IRES
Removable RFP marker and puromycin selection
HR210PA-1MCS1-LoxP-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-P2A-hsvTK-pA-LoxP-MCS2Removable GFP marker, puromycin selection, and TK selection
HR220PA-1GFP-pA-LoxP-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-LoxP-MCSTag with GFP fusion
Removable RFP ,arker and hygromycin Selection
HR410PA-1MCS1-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2Removable GFP marker and puromycin selection
HR510PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-MCS2Removable RFP marker and hygromycin selection
HR700PA-1MCS1-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable GFP marker and puromycin selection
HR710PA-1MCS1-EF1α-RFP-T2A-Hygro-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable RFP marker and hygromycin selection
HR720PA-1MCS1-EF1α-Blasticidin-pA-MCS2-PGK-hsvTKEnrich for on-target integration with negative TK selection**
Removable blasticidin selection
GE602A-1pAAVS1D-PGK-MCS-EF1α-copGFPpuroFirst generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
GE603A-1pAAVS1D-CMV-RFP-EF1α-copGFPpuroFirst generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor (positive control for GE602A-1)
GE620A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-MCSSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Promoterless to knock-in any gene or promoter-gene combination
GE622A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-EF1α-MCSSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Constitutive expression of your gene-of-interest
GE624A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-MCS-GFPSecond generation AAVS1-targeting HR Donor
Create reporter cell lines
CAS620A-1AAVS1-SA-puro-EF1α-hspCas9Knock-in Cas9 to the AAVS1 site
PBHR100A-1MCS1-5'PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3' PB TR-MCS2Use with the PiggyBac Transposon System
Enables seamless gene editing with no residual footprint (i.e. completely remove vector sequences)
*All HR Target Vectors except PBHR100A-1 contain LoxP sites. Any sequences that are integrated between the two LoxP sites can be removed through transient expression of Cre Recombinase.
**The clever design of these HR Donors enables enrichment for on-target integration events. A PGK-hsvTK cassette is included outside of the homology arms. Because of this configuration, on-target integration that results from homologous recombination will not include the PGK-hsvTK cassette—only randomly-integrated off-target events will lead to integration of PGK-hsvTK and resulting TK activity. Therefore, TK selection will negatively select against off-target integrants. Click on any one of these vectors to see a diagram of how the negative selection works.
Customer Agreements Academic customers can purchase PiggyBac Transposon System components for internal research purposes for indefinite use, whereas commercial customers must sign a customer agreement for a six-month, limited-use license to evaluate the technology.

For end user license information, see the following:

* SBI is fully licensed to distribute PiggyBac vectors as a partnership with Hera BioLabs, Inc.

How It Works

How It Works

Getting seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase Seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase

Figure 1. Seamless gene editing with the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase. Step 1: Cas9 creates a double-stranded break (DSB) in the genomic DNA at a site that is complimentary to the gRNA. For gene editing, this DSB should be within an intron. Step 2: The DNA repair machinery is recruited to the DSB. In the presence of an HR Donor with homology to the region adjacent to the DSB (blue areas of the genomic and vector DNA) homologous recombination (HR) is favored over non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). If one of the homology arms of the HR donor contains the gene edit, it will be incorporated into the gene through the HR repair process. Step 3: Like the Cre-LoxP system, the PiggyBac Transposon system relies on an enzyme—the transposase—to mediate a site-specific recombination event between two sites, the 5’ PiggyBac Terminal Repeat (TR) and the 3’ PiggyBac TR. However, unlike the Cre-LoxP system, the Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase completely removes the 5’ and 3’ PiggyBac TRs as well as any sequences in between the two TRs. The design of the PiggyBac Gene Editing HR Targeting Vector (MCS1-5’PB TR-EF1α-GFP-T2A-Puro-T2A-hsvTK-pA-3′ PB TR-MCS2) places two homology arms just outside of the PiggyBac Terminal Repeats (TRs). Thus, after Excision-only PiggyBac Transposase activity, all vector sequences are removed.

Genome engineering with CRISPR/Cas9

For general guidance on using CRISPR/Cas9 technology for genome engineering, including the design of HR Targeting Vectors, take a look at our CRISPR/Cas9 tutorials as well as the following application notes:

CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Knock-Out Application Note (PDF) »
CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing Application Note (PDF) »
CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Tagging Application Note (PDF) »

Supporting Data

FAQs

Citations

  • Brouwer, I, de Kort, MAC & Lenstra, TL. (2024) Measuring Transcription Dynamics of Individual Genes Inside Living Cells. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.). 2024; 2694:235-265. PM ID: 37824008
  • Matta, SK, et al. (2024) Genome-wide and targeted CRISPR screens identify RNF213 as a mediator of interferon gamma-dependent pathogen restriction in human cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2024; 121(1):e2315865120. PM ID: 38147552
  • Cho, MG, et al. (2024) MRE11 liberates cGAS from nucleosome sequestration during tumorigenesis. Nature. 2024; 625(7995):585-592. PM ID: 38200309
  • Du, M, et al. (2024) Direct observation of a condensate effect on super-enhancer controlled gene bursting. Cell. 2024; 187(2):331-344.e17. PM ID: 38194964
  • Schmitt, J, et al. (2024) Repurposing an endogenous degradation domain for antibody-mediated disposal of cell-surface proteins. EMBO reports. 2024;. PM ID: 38287192
  • Byrnes, AE, et al. (2024) A fluorescent splice-switching mouse model enables high-throughput, sensitive quantification of antisense oligonucleotide delivery and activity. Cell reports methods. 2024; 4(1):100673. PM ID: 38171361
  • Daiki, K, et al. (2024) Blood Endocan as a Biomarker for Breast Cancer Recurrence. Preprint. 2024;. Link: Preprint
  • Koeppel, J, et al. (2024) Randomizing the human genome by engineering recombination between repeat elements. bioRxiv. 2024;. Link: bioRxiv
  • Kortleve, D, et al. (2024) TCR-engineered T-cells directed against Ropporin-1 constitute a safe and effective treatment for triple-negative breast cancer in near-clinical models. bioRxiv. 2024;. Link: bioRxiv
  • Haakonsen, DL, et al. (2024) Stress response silencing by an E3 ligase mutated in neurodegeneration. Nature. 2024; 626(8000):874-880. PM ID: 38297121
  • Gupta, P, et al. (2024) Development of pathophysiologically relevant models of sickle cell disease and β-thalassemia for therapeutic studies. Nature communications. 2024; 15(1):1794. PM ID: 38413594
  • Company, C, et al. (2024) Logical design of synthetic cis-regulatory DNA for genetic tracing of cell identities and state changes. Nature communications. 2024; 15(1):897. PM ID: 38316783
  • Yang, L, et al. (2024) Uncovering receptor-ligand interactions using a high-avidity CRISPR activation screening platform. Science advances. 2024; 10(7):eadj2445. PM ID: 38354234
  • Kubara, K, et al. (2024) Lymph node macrophages drive innate immune responses to enhance the anti-tumor efficacy of mRNA vaccines. Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy. 2024;. PM ID: 38243602
  • Ng-Blichfeldt, J, et al. (2024) Identification of a core transcriptional program driving the human renal mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition. Developmental Cell. 2024;. Link: Developmental Cell
  • Yang, J, Cook, L & Chen, Z. (2024) Systematic evaluation of retroviral LTRs as cis-regulatory elements in mouse embryos. Cell reports. 2024; 43(3):113775. PM ID: 38381606
  • Taglini, F, et al. (2024) DNMT3B PWWP mutations cause hypermethylation of heterochromatin. EMBO reports. 2024;. PM ID: 38291337
  • Tanase-Nakao, K, et al. (2024) Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in Thirty Japanese Patients with Congenital Hypothyroidism Attributable to TG Defects. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2024;. PM ID: 38373250
  • Alsouri, S, et al. (2024) Actinin-4 controls survival signaling in B cells by limiting the lateral mobility of B-cell antigen receptors. European journal of immunology. 2024;:e2350774. PM ID: 38299456
  • Ke, X, et al. (2024) Establishment of a novel minigenome system for the identification of drugs targeting Nipah virus replication. The Journal of general virology. 2024; 105(1). PM ID: 38180473